All posts by Nick

About Nick

Dialtone.

How much computing power is in a SIM (And is it enough to get humans to the Moon?)

The first thing people learn about SIMs or the Smart Cards that the SIM / USIM app runs on, is that “There’s a little computer in the card”. So how little is this computer, and what’s the computing power in my draw full of SIMs?

So for starters the SIM manufacturers love their NDAs, so I can’t post the chip specifications for the actual cards in my draw, but here’s some comparable specs from a seller selling Java based smart cards online:

Specs for Smart Card

4K of RAM is 4069 bytes.
For comparison the Apollo Guidance Computer had 2048 words of RAM, but each “word” was 16 bits (two bytes), so actually this would translate to 4069 bytes so equal with one of these smart cards in terms of RAM – So the smart card above is on par with the AGC that took humans to the moon in terms of RAM, althhough the SIMs would be a wee bit larger if they were also using magnetic core memory like the AGC!

The Nintendo Entertainment System was powered by a MOS Technology 6502, it had access to 2K of RAM, two the Smart Card has twice as much RAM as the NES, so it could get you to the moon and play Super Mario Bros.

What about comparing Non-Volatile Memory (Storage)? Well, the smart card has 145KB of ROM / NVM, while Apollo flew with 36,864 words of RAM, each word is two bits to 73,728 Bytes, so roughly half of what the Smart Card has – Winner – Smart Card, again, without relying on core rope memory like AGC.

SIM cards are clocked kinda funkily so comparing processor speeds is tricky. Smart Cards are clocked off the device they connect to, which feeds them a clock signal via the CLK pin. The minimum clock speed is 1Mhz while the max is 5Mhz.

Now I’m somewhat of a hoarder when it comes to SIM Cards; in the course of my work I have to deal with a lot of SIMs…

Generally when we’re getting SIMs manufactured, during the Batch Approval Process (BAP) the SIM vendor will send ~25 cards for validation and testing. It’s not uncommon to go through several revisions. I probably do 10 of these a year for customers, so that’s 250 cards right there.

Then when the BAP is done I’ll get another 100 or so production cards for the lab, device testing, etc, this probably happens 3 times a year.

So that’s 550 SIMs a year, I do clean out every so often, but let’s call it 1000 cards in the lab in total.

In terms of ROM that gives me a combined 141.25 MB, I could store two Nintendo 64 games, or one Mini CD of data, stored across a thousand SIM cards – And you thought installing software from a few floppies was a pain in the backside, imagine accessing data from 1000 Smart Cards!

What about tying the smart cards together to use as a giant RAM BUS? Well our 1000 cards give us a combined 3.91 MB of RAM, well that’d almost be enough to run Windows 95, and enough to comfortably run Windows 3.1.

Practical do do any of this? Not at all, now if you’ll excuse me I think it’s time I throw out some SIMs…

The time Bell Labs brought the Statue of Liberty under its roof (Literally)

It’s 1986 and you’ve got a 31 tons of copper, in the form of a giant 46 meter tall statue, that’s looking a bit worse for wear.

The Statue of Liberty has had water pooling in some areas, causing areas of her copper skin to corrode, and in some cases wearing all the way through.

On the other side of the iron curtain (it’s still up after all) there are probably quite a number of folks experienced in looking after giant statues, but alas, you’re the US National Parks Service and seeking help from the Soviets is probably a bad look.

The statue is made of Copper, and who knows more about copper than the phone company, with a vast, vast network of copper lines spanning the country?

So the National Parks Service called upon Bell Labs to help.

The Bell Labs’ chemists assigned to the project quickly pointed out that just replacing the corroded copper with new copper would hardly blend in – You’d have the shiny brown copper colour in the new sections, which wouldn’t match the verdigris that occurs through the oxidation of the copper, which would take years to form. (When she was delivered, the statue had a copper colour like you’d see in Copper piping, not the green patina we see today.)

Bell Labs staff looked at artificially creating the patina with acid solutions, to speed up the process to match the new copper with the old, but it was found it may cause structural weak points.

John Franey who was a technical assistant working at Bell Labs’ Murray Hill laboratories must have looked up at the roof of their buildings, constructed in 1941, and thought “Well that looks pretty close…”, so the naturally patinaed roof of Bell Lab’s New Jersey campus was peeled up and sent off for patching the statue.

Modern day roof at Murray Hill now with the verdigris that’s had 40 years to form

Murray Hill got a shiny new copper roof to replace the old green one they’d just given up, and the particles of copper corrosion scraped off the dismantled roof of a Bell Labs were mixed with acetone into a special spray used as concealer on the statue’s skin.

In exchange, Bell Labs staff were given some of the copper plates removed from the statue, so they could study the natural corrosion process in copper, in various weather conditions, which in turn would lead to a better understanding of how to build and maintain their copper plant.

Sources

The Idea Factory – Book by Jon Gertner

New York Times: TECHNOLOGY; STATUE’S REPAIR AIDS RESEARCH – Stuart Diamond – Feb. 14, 1985

New York Times: BELL LAB SCIENTISTS WORKING AS LIBERTY’S ‘DERMATOLOGISTS’ – Marian H. Mundy – June 29, 1986

SSH into Cisco STPs

If it ain’t broke don’t fix is an addage that the telecom industry has well and truly applied to the SS7 space.

If you’ve got an SS7 network (especially one built on TDM links) the general philosophy is don’t touch it and hope to retire before it dies.

The Cisco STP (Internet Transfer Point) is a good example of this, and for that reason I still work on them.

But OpenSSH and standards have moved on, and SSHing into them these days requires some extra (insecure) parameters to access, so here they are:

ssh -oKexAlgorithms=+diffie-hellman-group1-sha1 -oHostKeyAlgorithms=+ssh-rsa -caes128-cbc [email protected]

Will get you into an Version 12.3(4r)T4 Cisco ITP. Be sure to run sho ver and marvel at that uptime!

Inside a 32×32 MIMO Antenna

For the past few months I’ve had a Band 78 NR active antenna unit sitting next to my desk.

It’s a very cool bit of kit that doesn’t get enough love, but I thought I’d pop open the radome and take a peek inside.

Individual antenna elements

What I found very interesting is that it’s not all antennas in there!

… 29, 30, 31, 32. Yup. Checks out.

There are the expected number of antennas (I mean if I opened it up and found 31 antennas I’d have been surprised) but they don’t take up the whole volume of the unit, only about half,

AAU with Radome reinstalled

Well, after that strip show, back to sitting in my office until I need to test something 5G SA again…

SQN Sync in IMS Auth

So the issue was a head scratcher.

Everything was working on the IMS, then I go to bed, the next morning I fire up the test device and it just won’t authenticate to the IMS – The S-CSCF generated a 401 in response to the REGISTER, but the next REGISTER wouldn’t pass.

Wireshark just shows me this loop:

UE -> IMS: REGISTER
IMS -> UE: 401 Unauthorized (With Challenge)
UE -> IMS: REGISTER with response
IMS -> UE: 401 Unauthorized (With Challenge)
UE -> IMS: REGISTER with response
IMS -> UE: 401 Unauthorized (With Challenge)
UE -> IMS: REGISTER with response
IMS -> UE: 401 Unauthorized (With Challenge)

So what’s going on here?

IMS uses AKAv1-MD5 for Authentication, this is slightly different to the standard AKA auth used in cellular, but if you’re curious, we’ve covered by IMS Authentication and standard AKA based SIM Authentication in cellular networks before.

When we generate the vectors (for IMS auth and standard auth) one of the inputs to generate the vectors is the Sequence Number or SQN.

This SQN ticks over like an odometer for the number of times the SIM / HSS authentication process has been performed.

There is some leeway in the SQN – It may not always match between the SIM and the HSS and that’s to be expected.
When the MME sends an Authentication-Information-Request it can ask for multiple vectors so it’s got some in reserve for the next time the subscriber attaches, and that’s allowed.

Information stored on USIM / SIM Card for LTE / EUTRAN / EPC - K key, OP/OPc key and SQN Sequence Number

But there are limits to how far out our SQN can be, and for good reason – One of the key purposes for the SQN is to protect against replay attacks, where the same vector is replayed to the UE. So the SQN on the HSS can be ahead of the SIM (within reason), but it can’t be behind – Odometers don’t go backwards.

So the issue was with the SQN on the SIM being out of Sync with the SQN in the IMS, how do we know this is the case, and how do we fix this?

Well there is a resync mechanism so the SIM can securely tell the HSS what the current SQN it is using, so the HSS can update it’s SQN.

When verifying the AUTN, the client may detect that the sequence numbers between the client and the server have fallen out of sync.
In this case, the client produces a synchronization parameter AUTS, using the shared secret K and the client sequence number SQN.
The AUTS parameter is delivered to the network in the authentication response, and the authentication can be tried again based on authentication vectors generated with the synchronized sequence number.

RFC 3110: HTTP Digest Authentication using AKA

In our example we can tell the sub is out of sync as in our Multimedia Authentication Request we see the SIP-Authorization AVP, which contains the AUTS (client synchronization parameter) which the SIM generated and the UE sent back to the S-CSCF. Our HSS can use the AUTS value to determine the correct SQN.

SIP-Authorization AVP in the Multimedia Authentication Request means the SQN is out of Sync and this AVP contains the RAND and AUTN required to Resync

Note: The SIP-Authorization AVP actually contains both the RAND and the AUTN concatenated together, so in the above example the first 32 bytes are the AUTN value, and the last 32 bytes are the RAND value.

So the HSS gets the AUTS and from it is able to calculate the correct SQN to use.

Then the HSS just generates a new Multimedia Authentication Answer with a new vector using the correct SQN, sends it back to the IMS and presto, the UE can respond to the challenge normally.

This feature is now fully implemented in PyHSS for anyone wanting to have a play with it and see how it all works.

And that friends, is how we do SQN resync in IMS!

HOMER API in Python

We’re doing more and more network automation, and something that came up as valuable to us would be to have all the IPs in HOMER SIP Capture come up as the hostnames of the VM running the service.

Luckily for us HOMER has an API for this ready to roll, and best of all, it’s Swagger based and easily documented (awesome!).

(Probably through my own failure to properly RTFM) I was struggling to work out the correct (current) way to Authenticate against the API service using a username and password.

Because the HOMER team are awesome however, the web UI for HOMER, is just an API client.

This means to look at how to log into the API, I just needed to fire up Wireshark, log into the Web UI via my browser and then flick through the packets for a real world example of how to do this.

Homer Login JSON body as seen by Wireshark

In the Login action I could see the browser posts a JSON body with the username and password to /api/v3/auth

{"username":"admin","password":"sipcapture","type":"internal"}

And in return the Homer API Server responds with a 201 Created an a auth token back:

Now in order to use the API we just need to include that token in our Authorization: header then we can hit all the API endpoints we want!

For me, the goal we were setting out to achieve was to setup the aliases from our automatically populated list of hosts. So using the info above I setup a simple Python script with Requests to achieve this:

import requests
s = requests.Session()

#Login and get Token
url = 'http://homer:9080/api/v3/auth'
json_data = {"username":"admin","password":"sipcapture"}
x = s.post(url, json = json_data)
print(x.content)
token = x.json()['token']
print("Token is: " + str(token))


#Add new Alias
alias_json = {
          "alias": "Blog Example",
          "captureID": "0",
          "id": 0,
          "ip": "1.2.3.4",
          "mask": 32,
          "port": 5060,
          "status": True
        }

x = s.post('http://homer:9080/api/v3/alias', json = alias_json, headers={'Authorization': 'Bearer ' + token})
print(x.status_code)
print(x.content)


#Print all Aliases
x = s.get('http://homer:9080/api/v3/alias', headers={'Authorization': 'Bearer ' + token})
print(x.json())

And bingo we’re done, a new alias defined.

We wrapped this up in a for loop for each of the hosts / subnets we use and hooked it into our build system and away we go!

With the Homer API the world is your oyster in terms of functionality, all the features of the Web UI are exposed on the API as the Web UI just uses the API (something I wish was more common!).

Using the Swagger based API docs you can see examples of how to achieve everything you need to, and if you ever get stuck, just fire up Wireshark and do it in the Homer WebUI for an example of how the bodies should look.

Thanks to the Homer team at QXIP for making such a great product!

Getting to know the PCRF for traffic Policy, Rules & Rating

Misunderstood, under appreciated and more capable than people give it credit for, is our PCRF.

But what does it do?

Most folks describe the PCRF in hand wavy-terms – “it does policy and charging” is the answer you’ll get, but that doesn’t really tell you anything.

So let’s answer it in a way that hopefully makes some practical sense, starting with the acronym “PCRF” itself, it stands for Policy and Charging Rules Function, which is kind of two functions, one for policy and one for rules, so let’s take a look at both.

Policy

In cellular world, as in law, policy is the rules.

For us some examples of policy could be a “fair use policy” to limit customer usage to acceptable levels, but it can also be promotional packages, services like “free Spotify” packages, “Voice call priority” or “unmetered access to Nick’s Blog and maximum priority” packages, can be offered to customers.

All of these are examples of policy, and to make them work we need to target which subscribers and traffic we want to apply the policy to, and then apply the policy.

Charging Rules

Charging Rules are where the policy actually gets applied and the magic happens.

It’s where we take our policy and turn it into actionable stuff for the cellular world.

Let’s take an example of “unmetered access to Nick’s Blog and maximum priority” as something we want to offer in all our cellular plans, to provide access that doesn’t come out of your regular usage, as well as provide QCI 5 (Highest non dedicated QoS) to this traffic.

To achieve this we need to do 3 things:

  • Profile the traffic going to this website (so we capture this traffic and not regular other internet traffic)
  • Charge it differently – So it’s not coming from the subscriber’s regular balance
  • Up the QoS (QCI) on this traffic to ensure it’s high priority compared to the other traffic on the network

So how do we do that?

Profiling Traffic

So the first step we need to take in providing free access to this website is to filter out traffic to this website, from the traffic not going to this website.

Let’s imagine that this website is hosted on a single machine with the IP 1.2.3.4, and it serves traffic on TCP port 443. This is where IPFilterRules (aka TFTs or “Traffic Flow Templates”) and the Flow-Description AVP come into play. We’ve covered this in the past here, but let’s recap:

IPFilterRules are defined in the Diameter Base Protocol (IETF RFC 6733), where we can learn the basics of encoding them,

They take the format:

action dir proto from src to dst

The action is fairly simple, for all our Dedicated Bearer needs, and the Flow-Description AVP, the action is going to be permit. We’re not blocking here.

The direction (dir) in our case is either in or out, from the perspective of the UE.

Next up is the protocol number (proto), as defined by IANA, but chances are you’ll be using 17 (UDP) or 6 (TCP).

The from value is followed by an IP address with an optional subnet mask in CIDR format, for example from 10.45.0.0/16 would match everything in the 10.45.0.0/16 network.

Following from you can also specify the port you want the rule to apply to, or, a range of ports.

Like the from, the to is encoded in the same way, with either a single IP, or a subnet, and optional ports specified.

And that’s it!

So let’s create a rule that matches all traffic to our website hosted on 1.2.3.4 TCP port 443,

permit out 6 from 1.2.3.4 443 to any 1-65535
permit out 6 from any 1-65535 to 1.2.3.4 443

All this info gets put into the Flow-Information AVPs:

With the above, any traffic going to/from 1.23.4 on port 443, will match this rule (unless there’s another rule with a higher precedence value).

Charging Actions

So with our traffic profiled, the next question is what actions are we going to take, well there’s two, we’re going to provide unmetered access to the profiled traffic, and we’re going to use QCI 4 for the traffic (because you’ll need a guaranteed bit rate bearer to access!).

Charging-Group for Profiled Traffic

To allow for Zero Rating for traffic matching this rule, we’ll need to use a different Rating Group.

Let’s imagine our default rating group for data is 10000, then any normal traffic going to the OCS will use rating group 10000, and the OCS will apply the specific rates and policies based on that.

Rating Groups are defined in the OCS, and dictate what rates get applied to what Rating Groups.

For us, our default rating group will be charged at the normal rates, but we can define a rating group value of 4000, and set the OCS to provide unlimited traffic to any Credit-Control-Requests that come in with Rating Group 4000.

This is how operators provide services like “Unlimited Facebook” for example, a Charging Rule matches the traffic to Facebook based on TFTs, and then the Rating Group is set differently to the default rating group, and the OCS just allows all traffic on that rating group, regardless of how much is consumed.

Inside our Charging-Rule-Definition, we populate the Rating-Group AVP to define what Rating Group we’re going to use.

Setting QoS for Profiled Traffic

The QoS Description AVP defines which QoS parameters (QCI / ARP / Guaranteed & Maximum Bandwidth) should be applied to the traffic that matches the rules we just defined.

As mentioned at the start, we’ll use QCI 4 for this traffic, and allocate MBR/GBR values for this traffic.

Putting it Together – The Charging Rule

So with our TFTs defined to match the traffic, our Rating Group to charge the traffic and our QoS to apply to the traffic, we’re ready to put the whole thing together.

So here it is, our “Free NVN” rule:

I’ve attached a PCAP of the flow to this post.

In our next post we’ll talk about how the PGW handles the installation of this rule.

Failures in cobbling together a USSD Gateway

One day recently I was messing with the XCAP server, trying to set the Call Forward timeout. In the process I triggered the UE to send a USSD request to the IMS.

Huh, I thought, “I wonder how hard it would be to build a USSD Gateway for our IMS?”, and this my friends, is the story of how I wasted a good chunk of my weekend trying (and failing) to add support for USSD.

You might be asking “Who still uses USSD?” – The use cases for USSD are pretty thin on the ground in this day and age, but I guess balance query, and uh…

But this is the story of what I tried before giving up and going outside…

Routing

First I’d need to get the USSD traffic towards the USSD Gateway, this means modifying iFCs. Skimming over the spec I can see the Recv-Info: header for USSD traffic should be set to “g.3gpp.ussd” so I knocked up an iFC to match that, and route the traffic to my dev USSD Gateway, and added it to the subscriber profile in PyHSS:

  <!-- SIP USSD Traffic to USSD-GW-->
        <InitialFilterCriteria>
            <Priority>25</Priority>
            <TriggerPoint>
                <ConditionTypeCNF>1</ConditionTypeCNF>
                <SPT>
                    <ConditionNegated>0</ConditionNegated>
                    <Group>1</Group>
                    <SIPHeader>
                      <Header>Recv-Info</Header>
                      <Content>"g.3gpp.ussd"</Content>
                    </SIPHeader>
                </SPT>                
            </TriggerPoint>
            <ApplicationServer>
                <ServerName>sip:ussdgw:5060</ServerName>
                <DefaultHandling>0</DefaultHandling>
            </ApplicationServer>
        </InitialFilterCriteria>

Easy peasy, now we have the USSD requests hitting our USSD Gateway.

The Response

I’ll admit that I didn’t jump straight to the TS doc from the start.

The first place I headed was Google to see if I could find any PCAPs of USSD over IMS/SIP.

And I did – Restcomm seems to have had a USSD product a few years back, and trawling around their stuff provided some reference PCAPs of USSD over SIP.

So the flow seemed pretty simple, SIP INVITE to set up the session, SIP INFO for in-dialog responses and a BYE at the end.

With all the USSD guts transferred as XML bodies, in a way that’s pretty easy to understand.

Being a Kamailio fan, that’s the first place I started, but quickly realised that SIP proxies, aren’t great at acting as the UAS.

So I needed to generate in-dialog SIP INFO messages, so I turned to the UAC module to generate the SIP INFO response.

My Kamailio code is super simple, but let’s have a look:

request_route {

        xlog("Request $rm from $fU");

        if(is_method("INVITE")){
                xlog("USSD from $fU to $rU (Emergency number) CSeq is $cs ");
                sl_reply("200", "OK Trying USSD Phase 1");      #Generate 200 OK
                route("USSD_Response"); #Call USSD_Response route block
                exit;
        }
}

route["USSD_Response"]{
        xlog("USSD_Response Route");
        #Generate a new UAC Request
        $uac_req(method)="INFO";
        $uac_req(ruri)=$fu;     #Copy From URI to Request URI
        $uac_req(furi)=$tu;     #Copy To URI to From URI
        $uac_req(turi)=$fu;     #Copy From URI to To URI
        $uac_req(callid)=$ci;   #Copy Call-ID
                                #Set Content Type to 3GPP USSD
        $uac_req(hdrs)=$uac_req(hdrs) + "Content-Type: application/vnd.3gpp.ussd+xml\r\n";
                                #Set the USSD XML Response body
        $uac_req(body)="<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?>
        <ussd-data>
                <language value=\"en\"/>
                <ussd-string value=\"Bienvenido. Seleccione una opcion: 1 o 2.\"/>
        </ussd-data>";
        $uac_req(evroute)=1;    #Set the event route to use on return replies
        uac_req_send();         #Send it!
}

So the UAC module generates the 200 OK and sends it back.

“That was quick” I told myself, patting myself on the back before trying it out for the first time.

Huston, we have a problem – Although the Call-ID is the same, it’s not an in-dialog response as the tags aren’t present, this means our UE send back a 405 to the SIP INFO.

Right. Perhaps this is the time to read the Spec…

Okay, so the SIP INFO needs to be in dialog. Can we do that with the UAC module? Perhaps not…

But the Transaction Module ™ in Kamailio exposes and option on the ctl API to generate an in-dialog UAC – this could be perfect…

But alas real life came back to rear its ugly head, and this adventure will have to continue another day…

Update: Thanks to a kindly provided PCAP I now know what I was doing wrong, and so we’ll soon have a follow up to this post named “Successes in cobbling together a USSD Gateway” just as soon as I have a weekend free.

Kamailio Bytes: Adding Prometheus + Grafana to Kamailio

I recently fell in love with the Prometheus + Grafana combo, and I’m including it in as much of my workflow as possible, so today we’ll be integrating this with another favorite – Kamailio.

Why would we want to integrate Kamailio into Prometheus + Grafana? Observability, monitoring, alerting, cool dashboards to make it look like you’re doing complicated stuff, this duo have it all!

I’m going to assume some level of familiarity with Prometheus here, and at least a basic level of understanding of Kamailio (if you’ve never worked with Kamailio before, check out my Kamailio 101 Series, then jump back here).

So what will we achieve today?

We’ll start with the simple SIP Registrar in Kamailio from this post, and we’ll add on the xhttp_prom module, and use it to expose some stats on the rate of requests, and responses sent to those requests.

So to get started we’ll need to load some extra modules, xhttp_prom module requires xhttp (If you’d like to learn the basics of xhttp there’s also a Kamailio Bytes – xHTTP Module post covering the basics) so we’ll load both.

xHTTP also has some extra requirements to load, so in the top of our config we’ll explicitly specify what ports we want to bind to, and set two parameters that control how Kamailio handles HTTP requests (otherwise you’ll not get responses for HTTP GET requests).

listen=tcp:0.0.0.0:9090
listen=tcp:0.0.0.0:5060
listen=udp:0.0.0.0:5060

http_reply_parse=yes
tcp_accept_no_cl=yes

Then where you load all your modules we’ll load xhttp and xhttp_prom, and set the basic parameters:

loadmodule "xhttp.so"
loadmodule "xhttp_prom.so"

# Define two counters and a gauge
modparam("xhttp_prom", "xhttp_prom_stats", "all")

By setting xhttp_prom module to expose all stats, this exposes all of Kamailio’s internal stats as counters to Prometheus – This means we don’t need to define all our own counters / histograms / gauges, instead we can use the built in ones from Kamailio. Of course we can define our own custom ones, but we’ll do that in our next post.

Lastly we’ll need to add an event route to handle HTTP requests to the /metrics URL:

event_route[xhttp:request] {
	xlog("Got a request!");
	xlog("$ru");
	$var(xhttp_prom_root) = $(hu{s.substr,0,8});
	if ($var(xhttp_prom_root) == "/metrics") {
			xlog("Called metrics");
			prom_dispatch();
			xlog("prom_dispatch() called");
			return;
	} else
		xhttp_reply("200", "OK", "text/html",
        		"<html><body>Wrong URL $hu</body></html>");
}

Restart, and browse to the IP of your Kamailio instance (mine is 10.01.23) port 9090 /metrics and you’ll get something like this:

Kamailio metrics endpoing used by Prometheus

That my friends, is the sort of data that Prometheus gobbles up, so let’s point Prometheus at it and see what data we get back.

Over on my Prometheus server I’ve edited /etc/prometheus/prometheus.yml to target our new Prometheus endpoint.

  - job_name: "kamailo"
    static_configs:
      - targets: ["10.0.1.23:9090"]  
    honor_timestamps: false

So how can we see this data? Well first off if we log into Prometheus we can see the data flowing in:

If we throw some SIP REGISTER traffic at our Kamailio instance and check on the kamailio_registrar_accepted_regs stat we can see our registrations.

After a few clicks in Grafana we can run some graphs for this data too:

So that’s it, Kamailio’s core stats are now exposed to Prometheus, and we can render this information in Grafana.

There’s a copy of the full code used here available in the Github, and in our next post we’ll look at defining our own metrics in Kamailio and then interacting with them.

Most Popular Articles of 2022

Yes, this is a lazy post. As the year draws to a close I was asked to put together a list of the most popular posts of the year.

Of the posts written this, year, there’s been a lot for people who build and work on networks to make their lives easier and their workflows more efficient.

For builders of networks, the series Diameter Routing Agents, why you need them and how to build them is something I’m really happy with, and we started our series on CGrateS the amazingly complete and feature filled OCS / Billing engine, it is a hard slog to learn, but the payoff is worth it, and we’ll continue to build on in 2023.

For skills every engineer should have, the Filtering for 3GPP DNS in Wireshark will make debugging issues with SRV records, NAPTR and IMS easier.

If you’re looking for free tools to help your workflow in the cellular space, Scratch’n’nSniff makes remote packet captures a breeze, and our Remote Handset Tester allows us to test mobile phones inside our network from anywhere on the planet.

The most popular posts this year weren’t actually from this year, this time last year I posted the Evolved Packet Core Analysis Challenge – The Skill-tester / Claw Machine of the Telecom world, test your EPC knowhow and skills!

As more and more readers are starting to work with 5GC this past year, My first 5G Core: Open5Gs and UERANSIM has been very popular as folks dip a toe in the water with 5GC.

As people are faced with the idea of actually implementing 5G standalone, SUCIs an SUPIs are something people are looking to understand, and see how this plays on the auth side, USIM Authentication in 5G/NR has been referenced a lot, along with the confidentiality algorithms used in 3GPP networks.

As people are introduced to the NRF, the post “If you like Pina Coladas, and service the control plane – Intro to NRF in 5GC” has also seen a lot of traffic.

On a personal notes, it looks like I finished every book in my reading list (Except Girdle Round the Earth that’s still on my bedside table), I did take a break from writing around the middle of the year, but weekly ish posts are coming back.

If you have a problem, if no one else can help, and if you can find me, drop me a line – [email protected] / LinkedIn / Twitter.

Demystifying SS7 & Sigtran – Part 6 – Calling with ISUP

So far in our lab we’ve got connectivity between to points, but we’re not carrying any useful data on top of it.

In the same way that TCP is great, but what makes it really useful is carrying application layers like HTTP on top, MTP3 exists to facilitate carrying higher-layer protocols, like ISUP, MAP, SCCP, etc, so let’s get some traffic onto our network.

ISUP is the ISDN User Part, ISUP is used to setup and teardown calls between two exchanges / SSPs – it’s the oldest and the most simple SS7 application to show off, so that’s what we’ll be working with today.

If you’ve not dealt much with ISDN in the past, then that’s OK – we’re not going to deep dive into all the nitty gritty of how ISDN Signaling works, but we’ll just skim the surface to showing how SS7/Sigtran transports the ISUP packets. So you can see how SS7 is used to transport this protocol.

Very Basic ISDN Signalling

ISUP is used to setup and teardown calls between telephone exchanges, which in SS7 networks, are the Service Switching Points (SSPs) we talked about in this post.

You can think of it a lot like SIP, which is if not the child of ISUP, then it at least bares a striking resemblance.

So let’s look at an ISUP call flow:

The call is initiated with an Initial Address Message (IAM), akin to a SIP INVITE, sent by the SSP/Exchange of the calling party to the SSP/Exchange of the called party.
When the remote party starts to ring, the remote exchange sends an Address Complete (ACM), which is similar to a 100 TRYING in SIP.
Once the remote party answers, the remote exchange sends back an Answer Message (ANM), and our call starts, just like a 200 OK.

Rather than SDP for transferring media, timeslots or predefined channels / circuits are defined, each identified by a number, which both sides will use for the media path.

Finally whichever side terminates the call will send a Release (REL) message, which is confirmed with the Release Complete (RLC).

I told you we’d be quick!

So that’s the basics of ISUP, in our next post we’ll do some PCAP analysis on real world ISUP flows!

SMS-over-IP Message Efficiency – K

Recently I read a post from someone talking about efficiency of USSD over IMS, and how crazy it was that such a small amount of data used so much overhead to get transferred across the network.

Having built an SMSc a while ago, my mind immediately jumped to SMS over IMS as being a great example of having so much overhead.

If we’re to consider sending the response “K” to a text message, how much overhead is there?

SMS PDU containing the message “K”

I’m using a common Qualcomm based smartphone, and here’s the numbers I’ve got from Wireshark when I send the message:

Transport Ethernet Header – 14 Bytes
Transport IP Header – 20 Bytes
Transport UDP Header – 8 Bytes
Transport GTP Header – 12 Bytes
User IP Header – 20 Bytes
IPsec ESP Header (For Um interface protection) – 22 Bytes
Encapsulated UDP Header – 8 Bytes
SIP Headers – 707 Bytes
SMS Header – 16 Bytes
SMS Message Body “K” – 1 Byte

Overall SIP, ESP, GTP and Transport PCAP for SIP MESSAGE

That seems pretty bad in terms of efficiency, but let’s look at how that actually works out:

This means our actual message body makes up just 1 byte of 828 bytes, or 0.12% of the size of the overall payload.

Even combined with the SMS header (which contains all the addressing information needed to route an SMS) it’s still just on 2% of the overall message.

So USSD efficiency isn’t great, but it’s not alone!

Charging problem on Fluke 990 CopperPro

I have a bit of a thing for Test Sets

Arguably, the most capable (toolbox-carryable) test set out there is the Fluke 990 CopperPro, combined TDR, Butt Set, Toner, RFL, Noise meter, etc, etc, it’s a really cool gizmo (And probably worthy of a blog post in itself someday).

Alas mine had stopped taking much of a charge, you’d plug it into the charger, and after 20 minutes of use, it’d report low power and shut down.

Sitting on the charger the Fluke would show the red charging light for about 20 minutes, then the charging light would turn off.

If I unplugged and replugged the charger I’d get red charging light for another few minutes, then turn off again.

Naively, I ruled it to be an issue with the battery (Which is close to 10 years old), and ordered a new one.

But with the new battery in hand, the same issue.

Stupidly, it turns out I was using a 15v charger, technically the unit supports a 15v charger, but it seems after a period, the internal voltage regulator overheats and shuts off, meaning the battery never got a good charge.

Swapping it with a 12v charger and I’m charging without issues.

But not before I ended up ordering a new battery, so now with the new battery I’m getting 15 hours of runtime out of a charge, and still squeezing 7 out of 8 year old battery it originally came with.

Dumb mistake but hopefully an easy fix for anyone with the same issue.

Kamailio Diameter Routing Agent Support

Recently I’ve been working on open source Diameter Routing Agent implementations (See my posts on FreeDiameter).

With the hurdles to getting a DRA working with open source software covered, the next step was to get all my Diameter traffic routed via the DRAs, however I soon rediscovered a Kamailio limitation regarding support for Diameter Routing Agents.

You see, when Kamailio’s C Diameter Peer module makes a decision as to where to route a request, it looks for the active Diameter peers, and finds a peer with the suitable Vendor and Application IDs in the supported Applications for the Application needed.

Unfortunately, a DRA typically only advertises support for one application – Relay.

This means if you have everything connected via a DRA, Kamailio’s CDP module doesn’t see the Application / Vendor ID for the Diameter application on the DRA, and doesn’t route the traffic to the DRA.

The fix for this was twofold, the first step was to add some logic into Kamailio to determine if the Relay application was advertised in the Capabilities Exchange Request / Answer of the Diameter Peer.

I added the logic to do this and exposed this so you can see if the peer supports Diameter relay when you run “cdp.list_peers”.

With that out of the way, next step was to update the routing logic to not just reject the candidate peer if the Application / Vendor ID for the required application was missing, but to evaluate if the peer supports Diameter Relay, and if it does, keep it in the game.

I added this functionality, and now I’m able to use CDP Peers in Kamailio to allow my P-CSCF, S-CSCF and I-CSCF to route their traffic via a Diameter Routing Agent.

I’ve got a branch with the changes here and will submit a PR to get it hopefully merged into mainline soon.

Ericsson & Nokia RRU Power Connectors – Wiring and Tricks

Something that’s kind of great is that the current generation of Ericsson RRUs and Nokia RRUs, use the same power connector – The Amphenol “Amphe-OBTS” series connector.

Construction and wiring of these connectors is the same for both, and with one little trick, we can use the connector for both Ericsson and Nokia RRUs (Airscale and later).

This pin that stops the connector from being “universal” but is easily removed.

The connectors are not quite universal, in order to use it in both you need to knock off a small pin on the connector, I’d suggest doing this before you assemble it, put the connector on it’s back, facing upwards, and hit this with a screwdriver / chisel and it’ll pop off with very little effort.

Assembling the connectors starts by working out the diameter of the grommet you need to fit your cable, the connector comes with the grommet for 9-14mm, but in the bag you’ll usually get grommets for 6-9mm cable and 14-18mm cable.

Grab the correct one for your cable diameter, and pop into the black fingered cage (‘gland adapter’) shown in the bottom right of the below photo.

Grommets and gland adapter

Next we line all the parts up along the cable and screw it all together:

The end-cap is actually very useful for stopping the female end of the connector from spinning when you’re assembling the cable, so don’t throw it away!

The finished product

Diameter Routing Agents – Part 5 – AVP Transformations with FreeDiameter and Python in rt_pyform

In our last post we talked about why we’d want to perform Diameter AVP translations / rewriting on our Diameter Routing Agent.

Now let’s look at how we can actually achieve this using rt_pyform extension for FreeDiameter and some simple Python code.

Before we build we’ll need to make sure we have the python3-devel package (I’m using python3-devel-3.10) installed.

Then we’ll build FreeDiameter with the rt_pyform, this branch contains the rt_pyform extension in it already, or you can clone the extension only from this repo.

Now once FreeDiameter is installed we can load the extension in our freeDiameter.conf file:

LoadExtension = "rt_pyform.fdx" : "<Your config filename>.conf";

Next we’ll need to define our rt_pyform config, this is a super simple 3 line config file that specifies the path of what we’re doing:

DirectoryPath = "."        # Directory to search
ModuleName = "script"      # Name of python file. Note there is no .py extension
FunctionName = "transform" # Python function to call

The DirectoryPath directive specifies where we should search for the Python code, and ModuleName is the name of the Python script, lastly we have FunctionName which is the name of the Python function that does the rewriting.

Now let’s write our Python function for the transformation.

The Python function much have the correct number of parameters, must return a string, and must use the name specified in the config.

The following is an example of a function that prints out all the values it receives:

def transform(appId, flags, cmdCode, HBH_ID, E2E_ID, AVP_Code, vendorID, value):
    print('[PYTHON]')
    print(f'|-> appId: {appId}')
    print(f'|-> flags: {hex(flags)}')
    print(f'|-> cmdCode: {cmdCode}')
    print(f'|-> HBH_ID: {hex(HBH_ID)}')
    print(f'|-> E2E_ID: {hex(E2E_ID)}')
    print(f'|-> AVP_Code: {AVP_Code}')
    print(f'|-> vendorID: {vendorID}')
    print(f'|-> value: {value}')
    
    return value

Note the order of the arguments and that return is of the same type as the AVP value (string).

We can expand upon this and add conditionals, let’s take a look at some more complex examples:

def transform(appId, flags, cmdCode, HBH_ID, E2E_ID, AVP_Code, vendorID, value):
    print('[PYTHON]')
    print(f'|-> appId: {appId}')
    print(f'|-> flags: {hex(flags)}')
    print(f'|-> cmdCode: {cmdCode}')
    print(f'|-> HBH_ID: {hex(HBH_ID)}')
    print(f'|-> E2E_ID: {hex(E2E_ID)}')
    print(f'|-> AVP_Code: {AVP_Code}')
    print(f'|-> vendorID: {vendorID}')
    print(f'|-> value: {value}')
    #IMSI Translation - if App ID = 16777251 and the AVP being evaluated is the Username
    if (int(appId) == 16777251) and int(AVP_Code) == 1:
        print("This is IMSI '" + str(value) + "' - Evaluating transformation")
        print("Original value: " + str(value))
        value = str(value[::-1]).zfill(15)

The above look at if the App ID is S6a, and the AVP being checked is AVP Code 1 (Username / IMSI ) and if so, reverses the username, so IMSI 1234567 becomes 7654321, the zfill is just to pad with leading 0s if required.

Now let’s do another one for a Realm Rewrite:

def transform(appId, flags, cmdCode, HBH_ID, E2E_ID, AVP_Code, vendorID, value):

    #Print Debug Info
    print('[PYTHON]')
    print(f'|-> appId: {appId}')
    print(f'|-> flags: {hex(flags)}')
    print(f'|-> cmdCode: {cmdCode}')
    print(f'|-> HBH_ID: {hex(HBH_ID)}')
    print(f'|-> E2E_ID: {hex(E2E_ID)}')
    print(f'|-> AVP_Code: {AVP_Code}')
    print(f'|-> vendorID: {vendorID}')
    print(f'|-> value: {value}')
    #Realm Translation
    if int(AVP_Code) == 283:
        print("This is Destination Realm '" + str(value) + "' - Evaluating transformation")
    if value == "epc.mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org":
        new_realm = "epc.mnc999.mcc999.3gppnetwork.org"
        print("translating from " + str(value) + " to " + str(new_realm))
        value = new_realm
    else:
        #If the Realm doesn't match the above conditions, then don't change anything
        print("No modification made to Realm as conditions not met")
    print("Updated Value: " + str(value))

In the above block if the Realm is set to epc.mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org it is rewritten to epc.mnc999.mcc999.3gppnetwork.org, hopefully you can get a handle on the sorts of transformations we can do with this – We can translate any string type AVPs, which allows for hostname, realm, IMSI, Sh-User-Data, Location-Info, etc, etc, to be rewritten.

NB-IoT NIDD Basics

NB-IoT introduces support for NIDD – Non-IP Data Delivery (NIDD) which is one of the cool features of NB-IoT that’s gaining more widespread adoption.

Let’s take a deep dive into NIDD.

The case against IP for IoT

In the over 40 years since IP was standardized, we’ve shoehorned many things onto IP, but IP was never designed or optimized for low power, low throughput applications.

For the battery life of an IoT device to be measured in years, it has to be very selective about what power hungry operations it does. Transmitting data over the air is one of the most power-intensive operations an IoT device can perform, so we need to do everything we can to limit how much data is sent, and how frequently.

Use Case – NB-IoT Tap

Let’s imagine we’re launching an IoT tap that transmits information about water used, as part of our revolutionary new “Water as a Service” model (WaaS) which removes the capex for residents building their own water treatment plant in their homes, and instead allows dynamic scaling of waterloads as they move to our new opex model.

If I turn on the tap and use 12L of water, when I turn off the tap, our IoT tap encodes the usage onto a single byte and sends the usage information to our rain-cloud service provider.

So we’re not constantly changing the batteries in our taps, we need to send this one byte of data as efficiently as possible, so as to maximize the battery life.

If we were to transport our data on TCP, well we’d need a 3 way handshake and several messages just to transmit the data we want to send.

Let’s see how our one byte of data would look if we transported it on TCP.

That sliver of blue in the diagram is our usage component, the rest is overhead used to get it there. Seems wasteful huh?

Sure, TCP isn’t great for this you say, you should use UDP! But even if we moved away from TCP to UDP, we’ve still got the IPv4 header and the UDP header wasting 28 bytes.

For efficiency’s sake (To keep our batteries lasting as long as possible) we want to send as few messages as possible, and where we do have to send messages, keep them very short, so IP is not a great fit here.

Enter NIDD – Non-IP Data Delivery.

Through NIDD we can just send the single hex byte, only be charged for the single hex byte, and only stay transmitting long enough to send this single byte of hex (Plus the NBIoT overheads / headers).

Compared to UDP transport, NIDD provides us a reduction of 28 bytes of overhead for each message, or a 96% reduction in message size, which translates to real power savings for our IoT device.

In summary – the more sending your device has to do, the more battery it consumes.
So in a scenario where you’re trying to maximize power efficiency to keep your batter powered device running as long as possible, needing to transmit 28 bytes of wasted data to transport 1 byte of usable data, is a real waste.

Delivering the Payload

NIDD traffic is transported as raw hex data end to end, this means for our 1 byte of water usage data, the device would just send the hex value to be transferred and it’d pop out the other end.

To support this we introduce a new network element called the SCEFService Capability Exposure Function.

From a developer’s perspective, the SCEF is the gateway to our IoT devices. Through the RESTful API on the SCEF (T8 API), we can send and receive raw hex data to any of our IoT devices.

When one of our Water-as-a-Service Taps sends usage data as a hex byte, it’s the software talking on the T8 API to the SCEF that receives this data.

Data of course needs to be addressed, so we know where it’s coming from / going to, and T8 handles this, as well as message reliability, etc, etc.

This is a telco blog, so we should probably cover the MME connection, the MME talks via Diameter to the SCEF. In our next post we’ll go into these signaling flows in more detail.

If you’re wondering what the status of Open Source SCEF implementations are, then you may have already guessed I’m working on one!

Hopefully by now you’ve got a bit of an idea of how NIDD works in NB-IoT, and in our next posts we’ll dig deeper into the flows and look at some PCAPs together.

Diameter Routing Agents – Part 5 – AVP Transformations

Having a central pair of Diameter routing agents allows us to drastically simplify our network, but what if we want to perform some translations on AVPs?

For starters, what is an AVP transformation? Well it’s simply rewriting the value of an AVP as the Diameter Request/Response passes through the DRA. A request may come into the DRA with IMSI xxxxxx and leave with IMSI yyyyyy if a translation is applied.

So why would we want to do this?

Well, what if we purchased another operator who used Realm X, and we use Realm Y, and we want to link the two networks, then we’d need to rewrite Realm Y to Realm X, and Realm X to Realm Y when they communicate, AVP transformations allow for this.

If we’re an MVNO with hosted IMSIs from an MNO, but want to keep just the one IMSI in our HSS/OCS, we can translate from the MNO hosted IMSI to our internal IMSI, using AVP transformations.

If our OCS supports only one rating group, and we want to rewrite all rating groups to that one value, AVP transformations cover this too.

There are lots of uses for this, and if you’ve worked with a bit of signaling before you’ll know that quite often these sorts of use-cases come up.

So how do we do this with freeDiameter?

To handle this I developed a module for passing each AVP to a Python function, which can then apply any transformation to a text based value, using every tool available to you in Python.

In the next post I’ll introduce rt_pyform and how we can use it with Python to translate Diameter AVPs.

Diameter Routing Agents – Part 4 – Advanced FreeDiameter DRA Routing

Way back in part 2 we discussed the basic routing logic a DRA handles, but what if we want to do something a bit outside of the box in terms of how we route?

For me, one of the most useful use cases for a DRA is to route traffic based on IMSI / Username.
This means I can route all the traffic for MVNO X to MVNO X’s HSS, or for staging / test subs to the test HSS enviroment.

FreeDiameter has a bunch of built in logic that handles routing based on a weight, but we can override this, using the rt_default module.

In our last post we had this module commented out, but let’s uncomment it and start playing with it:

#Basic Diameter config for this box
Identity = "dra.mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org";
Realm = "mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org";
Port = 3868;

LoadExtension = "dbg_msg_dumps.fdx" : "0x8888";
LoadExtension = "rt_redirect.fdx":"0x0080";
LoadExtension = "rt_default.fdx":"rt_default.conf";

TLS_Cred = "/etc/freeDiameter/cert.pem", "/etc/freeDiameter/privkey.pem";
TLS_CA = "/etc/freeDiameter/cert.pem";
TLS_DH_File = "/etc/freeDiameter/dh.pem";

ConnectPeer = "mme01.mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" { ConnectTo = "10.98.0.10"; No_TLS; };
ConnectPeer = "hss01" { ConnectTo = "10.0.1.252"; No_TLS; Port = 3868; Realm = "mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org";};
ConnectPeer = "hss02" { ConnectTo = "10.0.1.253"; No_TLS; Port = 3868; Realm = "mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org";};
ConnectPeer = "hss-mvno-x" { ConnectTo = "10.98.0.22"; No_TLS; Port = 3868; Realm = "mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org";};
ConnectPeer = "hss-lab" { ConnectTo = "10.0.2.2"; No_TLS; Port = 3868; Realm = "mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org";};

In the above code we’ve uncommented rt_default and rt_redirect.

You’ll notice that rt_default references a config file, so we’ll create a new file in our /etc/freeDiameter directory called rt_default.conf, and this is where the magic will happen.

A few points before we get started:

  • This overrides the default routing priorities, but in order for a peer to be selected, it has to be in an Open (active) state
  • The peer still has to have advertised support for the requested application in the CER/CEA dialog
  • The peers will still need to have all been defined in the freeDiameter.conf file in order to be selected

So with that in mind, and the 5 peers we have defined in our config above (assuming all are connected), let’s look at some rules we can setup using rt_default.

Intro to rt_default Rules

The rt_default.conf file contains a list of rules, each rule has a criteria that if matched, will result in the specified action being taken. The actions all revolve around how to route the traffic.

So what can these criteria match on?
Here’s the options:

Item to MatchCode
Any*
Origin-Hostoh=”STR/REG”
Origin-Realmor=”STR/REG”
Destination-Hostdh=”STR/REG”
Destination-Realmdr=”STR/REG”
User-Nameun=”STR/REG”
Session-Idsi=”STR/REG”
rt_default Matching Criteria

We can either match based on a string or a regex, for example, if we want to match anything where the Destination-Realm is “mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org” we’d use something like:

#Low score to HSS02
dr="mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" : dh="hss02" += -70 ;

Now you’ll notice there is some stuff after this, let’s look at that.

We’re matching anything where the destination-host is set to hss02 (that’s the bit before the colon), but what’s the bit after that?

Well if we imagine that all our Diameter peers are up, when a message comes in with Destination-Realm “mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org”, looking for an HSS, then in our example setup, we have 4 HHS instances to choose from (assuming they’re all online).

In default Diameter routing, all of these peers are in the same realm, and as they’re all HSS instances, they all support the same applications – Our request could go to any of them.

But what we set in the above example is simply the following:

If the Destination-Realm is set to mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org, then set the priority for routing to hss02 to the lowest possible value.

So that leaves the 3 other Diameter peers with a higher score than HSS02, so HSS02 won’t be used.

Let’s steer this a little more,

Let’s specify that we want to use HSS01 to handle all the requests (if it’s available), we can do that by adding a rule like this:

#Low score to HSS02
dr="mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" : dh="hss02" += -70 ;
#High score to HSS01
dr="mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" : dh="hss01" += 100 ;

But what if we want to route to hss-lab if the IMSI matches a specific value, well we can do that too.

#Low score to HSS02
dr="mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" : dh="hss02" += -70 ;
#High score to HSS01
dr="mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" : dh="hss01" += 100 ;
#Route traffic for IMSI to Lab HSS
un="001019999999999999" : dh="hss-lab" += 200 ;

Now that we’ve set an entry with a higher score than hss01 that will be matched if the username (IMSI) equals 001019999999999999, the traffic will get routed to hss-lab.

But that’s a whole IMSI, what if we want to match only part of a field?

Well, we can use regex in the Criteria as well, so let’s look at using some Regex, let’s say for example all our MVNO SIMs start with 001012xxxxxxx, let’s setup a rule to match that, and route to the MVNO HSS with a higher priority than our normal HSS:

#Low score to HSS02
dr="mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" : dh="hss02" += -70 ;
#High score to HSS01
dr="mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" : dh="hss01" += 100 ;
#Route traffic for IMSI to Lab HSS
un="001019999999999999" : dh="hss-lab" += 200 ;
#Route traffic where IMSI starts with 001012 to MVNO HSS
un=["^001012.*"] : dh="hss-mvno-x" += 200 ;

Let’s imagine that down the line we introduce HSS03 and HSS04, and we only want to use HSS01 if HSS03 and HSS04 are unavailable, and only to use HSS02 no other HSSes are available, and we want to split the traffic 50/50 across HSS03 and HSS04.

Firstly we’d need to add HSS03 and HSS04 to our FreeDiameter.conf file:

...
ConnectPeer = "hss02" { ConnectTo = "10.0.1.253"; No_TLS; Port = 3868; Realm = "mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org";};
ConnectPeer = "hss03" { ConnectTo = "10.0.3.3"; No_TLS; Port = 3868; Realm = "mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org";};
ConnectPeer = "hss04" { ConnectTo = "10.0.4.4"; No_TLS; Port = 3868; Realm = "mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org";};
...

Then in our rt_default.conf we’d need to tweak our scores again:

#Low score to HSS02
dr="mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" : dh="hss02" += 10 ;
#Medium score to HSS01
dr="mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" : dh="hss01" += 20 ;
#Route traffic for IMSI to Lab HSS
un="001019999999999999" : dh="hss-lab" += 200 ;
#Route traffic where IMSI starts with 001012 to MVNO HSS
un=["^001012.*"] : dh="hss-mvno-x" += 200 ;
#High Score for HSS03 and HSS04
dr="mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" : dh="hss02" += 100 ;
dr="mnc001.mcc001.3gppnetwork.org" : dh="hss04" += 100 ;

One quick tip to keep your logic a bit simpler, is that we can set a variety of different values based on keywords (listed below) rather than on a weight/score:

BehaviourNameScore
Do not deliver to peer (set lowest priority)NO_DELIVERY-70
The peer is a default route for all messagesDEFAULT5
The peer is a default route for this realmDEFAULT_REALM10
REALM15
Route to the specified Host with highest priorityFINALDEST100
Rather than manually specifying the store you can use keywords like above to set the value

In our next post we’ll look at using FreeDiameter based DRA in roaming scenarios where we route messages across Diameter Realms.